Emergency room Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Emergency room - Assignment Example In most cases nurse in the in-patient units do not work during irregular hours (Burgess, 2014). In the ER, documentation focuses on addressing acute symptoms through use of ICD-10-CM codes. This is different from documentation that is used in the in-patient setting since it does not involve coding. In the in-patient unit documentation is done in paper format or electronically but without coding (Burgess, 2014). In the ER, there are several legal issues involved. One of them is determination of how emergent a situation is for the patient since some situations can be deceiving and accurate decisions have to be made. Another common legal issue is ensuring that patients are screened and treated appropriately while keeping them informed of the treatment being given. The legal issues arising from in-patient unit are less compared to the ER. The patients in in-patient unit need to have informed consent of the treatment they receive (Burgess, 2014). Safety and privacy of the patient can be maintained by ensuring that there is always a technician to help the patient at any given time and that there is no displayed information on the patient that other people can see. The client can also be provided privacy through use of curtains to cover his bed area. Through use of curtains around his bed area, only restricted people can intrude his personal space. The protocols related to communication include ensuring protection of the information that the patient gives for purposes of medical records. Such information should be treated with a lot of privacy and should be secured. The technicians should not share a patient’s information by any chance and should ensure that the patient is aware of the results (Burgess, 2014). In such a situation, the nurses and physicians are allowed to carry out the procedure on the patient without any consent to save his or her life. The patient will then be told about the procedures carried out when he is conscious and can

Ceratopteris Fern Growth and Analysis Essay Example for Free

Ceratopteris Fern Growth and Analysis Essay I: Abstract Observing the effects of ammonium nitrate has on the germination days of C-Fern gametophytes by constructing an experiment with two spore-sown petri dishes, one control and one treatment – a normal nutrient-rich agar petri dish and an ammonium nitrate-containing petri dish respectively. The two petri dishes were each inoculated with three drops of spore suspension by a pipet, then spores were spread by a sterilized-bent paper clip to allow even distribution of spores. Gametophyte germination occurred approximately two weeks after inoculation for the control, and gametophyte germination occurred approximately three weeks after inoculation for the treatment; thus possibly suggesting ammonium nitrate worked to hinder the mitotic cell division in the haploid gametophyte. II: Introduction C-Fern begins with a haploid spore known as the spore imbibition (Hickok, Warne 2009), then after 3 to 4 days the spore will develop into a gametophyte via mitosis after germination. This is a photoautotrophic process. The gametophyte will then undergo differentiation (Hickok, Warne 2009), to form the antheridium and the archegonium after 6 to 8 days (Hickok, Warne 2009). Following the gametophyte displaying its hermaphrodite form, sexual maturity allows cross-fertilization to occur between the sperm from antheridium and the egg from archegonium. After one sperm fertilizes the egg, a zygote forms, thus forming a diploid cell (Hoshizaki 2001). The formation of the zygote exemplifies sporophytes’ alternation of generations via the diploid cell completing mitosis and meiosis yet still retaining a full set of genetic material. In other words, alternation of generation refers to going from a multicellular diploid form to a multicellular haploid form. (Hickok, Warne 2009). The fertilized egg develops into a sporophyte by mitosis to form a microscopic young fern (embryo), which is a gametophyte under the reproductive leaves called sporangia. Note that sporophytes are diploid and gametophytes are haploid. When the sporophyte reaches maturity, it releases spores via meiosis, then the spores will undergo mitosis, thus forming gametophytes, and the life cycle continues (Brooker 2011). Figure 1 is a pictorial depiction of the life cycle of a fern. [pic] Figure 1: The life cycle of a fern. [1] This experiment aims to discover the germination time of C-Fern under a controlled condition and a treatment condition. Experimenting if the treatment of ammonium nitrate will allow faster germination of the C-Fern. Some data shows that ammonium nitrate possibly functions as a fertilizer for many species of plants, however, not all plants will reap the benefits of ammonium nitrate (Aderkas 1984). [2] The null hypothesis of this experiment is that the ammonium nitrate will not hinder the rate of germination of the C-Fern, thus the data obtained from the control will not have a statistical difference from the data obtained from the treatment. III: Methods Two 60 mm petri dishes were prepared. One labeled â€Å"C† for control, another labeled â€Å"T† for treatment. The control contained a layer of agar and the treatment contained agar and ammonium nitrate. Petri dish for control was inoculated with three drops of C-Fern spore suspension via a pipette, and petri dish for treatment was inoculated three drops of C-Fern spore suspension via the same pipette. A Bunsen burner was used to sterilize a bent â€Å"T† shaped paper clip, the paper clip was used to spread the spore suspension in the petri dish for control. The same paper clip was sterilized again by a 70% ethanol solution and was used to spread spore suspension in treatment petri dish. Two petri dishes were each covered with a lid and now considered culture trays, culture trays then were transported to a climate controlled light dome for optimal growth. Light dome maintained a full spectrum of light 24/7 with temperature in the range of 28 to 30 degrees Celsiu s. Observations were made on every Friday at approximately 3:10 pm for the next 3 weeks. Spores were sown in the week of September 10th and no observations were made. First observation was made in the week of September 17th, Friday 3:08 pm, the control displayed some growth with flagella-like hair, however, no germination was observed. The treatment did not display any signs of growth, only air-like bubbles were observed. Second observation was made in the week of September 24th, Friday 3:10 pm, the control displayed germination, gametophytes were visible under the microscope, however, hermaphrodites were not significantly observed. The treatment still does not display signs of germination, only small green spores were observed under the microscope. Last observation was made in the week of October 1st, Friday 3:05 pm, the control displayed significant signs of growth, it appeared that fertilization took place and an embryo was in development. The treatment only displayed minimal germination, however, some spores appeared to be infested with fungus.

Definition and Features of Monopoly and Competition

Definition and Features of Monopoly and Competition Definition of Monopoly Monopoly is a well defined market structure where there is only one seller who controls the entire market supply, as there are no close substitutes for his product and there are no barriers to the entry of rival producers. This sole seller in the market is called â€Å"monopolist†. The term monopolist is derived from the Greek word â€Å"mono†, meaning â€Å"single†, and â€Å"polist† meaning seller. Thus the monopolist may be defined as the sole seller of a product which has no close substitutes. The monopolist is faced by a large number of competing buyers for his product. Evidently monopoly is the antithesis of competition on. In a monopoly market, the producer, being the sole seller, has no direct competitors in either the popular or technical sense. Thus, the monopoly market model is the opposite extreme of competition. Features of Monopoly The features of a monopoly are: The monopolist is the sole producer in the market. Thus, under monopoly, firm and industry are identical. There are no closely competitive substitutes for the product. So the buyers have no alternative or choice. They have either to buy the product or go without it. Monopoly is a complete negation of competition. A monopolist is a price maker and not a price taker. In fact his price fixing power is absolute. He is in a position to fix the price for the product, as he likes. He can vary the price from buyer to buyer. Thus in a competitive industry, there is a single ruling price, while in a monopoly, there may be differentials. A monopoly firm itself being the industry, it faces a downward-sloping demand curve for its product. That means it cannot sell more output unless the price is lowered. A pure monopolist has no immediate rivals due to certain barriers to entry in the field. There are legal, technological, economic or natural obstacles which may block the entry of new firms. Since a monopolist has a complete control over the market supply in the absence of a close or remote substitute for his product, he can fix the price as well as quantity of be sold in the market. Abuses of Monopoly Though a monopolist has complete freedom in determining his own price, there are some limits to his power. These are listed below: The demand curve of a monopolist slopes downwards. This is shown as demand curve DD of the monopolist in Figure. On such a curve, a monopolist cannot choose both Price and Output to be sold. He has to determine one of these quantities. If he chooses higher price P1 he has to be satisfied with smaller sales of quantity Q1. If he prefers larger output Q2 he will have to charge lower price P2. The second constraint on monopoly power arises out of the income and willingness of consumers. If the monopolist attempts to charge a price as high as Pn his sales fall to zero. So even though a monopolist has complete freedom to charge any high price this freedom is restricted by the consumer’s ability to purchase goods. Finally, monopoly power also depends upon elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is rigid or less elastic the monopolist has a greater degree of control. As the demand curve becomes more flexible or flatter the monopolist’s control starts declining. This can be explained with the help of Figure. In the figure there are two demand curves. DD1 is rigid or less flexible showing greater monopoly control. DD2 is flatter or more flexible and depicts a lower degree of monopoly control. On rigid demand curve DD1 if the monopolist increases the price from P to P1 the fall in the quantity sold is as small as QQ1. On the flatter demand curve DD2 with the same rise in price, a fall in the quantity sold is as large as NN1. In case of a flexible demand curve there is a danger that even at a higher price, the total revenue of a monopolist may be smaller. This has been further explained in the table below: PRICE RIGID DEMAND D1 TOTAL REVENUE TR1 FLEXIBLE DEMAND D2 TOTAL REVENUE TR2 2 6 12 20 40 4 5 20 8 32 6 4 24 5 30 A monopolist attempts to raise his price from 2 to 4 to 6. As a result of this quantity demanded goes on falling. Yet in the case of Rigid Demand D1, with a fall in the demand from 6 to 5 to 4 Total Revenue TR1 increases from 12 to 20 to 24. With the Flexible Demand condition D2 the quantity demanded falls sharply from 20 to 8 to 5 causing Total Revenue TR2 to fall from 40 to 32 to 30. Hence the slope or the degree of flexibility of the demand curve governs the degree of monopoly power Monopoly market is restrictive and hence considered as an evil form of market. Monopoly is also a source of wastage. It underutilizes productive capacity and reduces Consumer’s Surplus. Underutilization of capacity may cause some workers to remain unemployed. These and other shortcomings can be analyzed and explained with the help of a comparative diagram. We find both competitive and monopoly equilibrium positions marketed by point e1 and e2 respectively. A competitive firm produces output Q1 and sells at price P1. A monopolist produces smaller output Q2 (Q2P1). Competition allows only normal profits to a firm as part of the average cost of production. A monopolist earns extra monopoly profits of the size CSRP2. Under competition output is produced at point e1 which is the lowest point on the average cost line. Therefore competition makes fuller utilization of the productive capacity. Under monopoly output is produced at point S which is on the falling phase of AC. This shows underutilization of the productive capacity. Finally, the size of the Consumer’s Surplus under competition is as large as De1P1 while that under monopoly is only DRP2. Hence under monopoly there is higher price, lower output, underutilization of productive capacity or wastage of resources and reduction in Consumer’s Surplus. Differences between Monopoly,  Equilibrium Competitive Equilibrium There are typical differences between the two types of market models their equilibrium positions. A comparative account of their differences is presented below: The demand curve of a competitive firm for its product is perfectly elastic. It is a horizontal straight line. It implies that the firm can sell any level of out put at the ruling market price. While the demand curve of the monopolistic for his product is relatively inelastic, it is a downward sloping curve. It suggests that the monopolist can sell more output only by lowering the price. To a competitive firm, price is given in the market. So at this price, average and marginal revenue will be the same. Hence, AR MR curves coincide and are represented through the demand curve which is a horizontal straight line. In the case of a monopoly, the downward sloping demand curve represents the AR curve. The MR curve also slopes downwards but it lies below the AR curve. If it is linear, then it lies half the distance between the price-axis and the demand curve. Under both perfect competition and monopoly, the equilibrium output is set at the point of equality between MC and MA. The competitive firm attains equilibrium only when the MC curve intersects the MR curve below. Thus, it is essential that MC must be rising at and near the equilibrium output. In fact, the falling cost curves caused by increasing returns to scale are incompatible with competitive equilibrium output, for the firm’s MR curve being horizontal, the falling MC curve can never lead to a competitive equilibrium position because as the firm will be inclined to expand its size until it becomes so large that its AR and MR curves ultimately begin to fall in order to cut the continuously falling MC curve. This means that the firm will become so large that competition will become imperfect and the individual firm would be in a position to influence the price of its product by altering its own output. In short, perfect competition will cease to exist when a firm increases i ts output to a very large extent in order to attain equilibrium under falling cost conditions. It may, therefore, be concluded that increasing returns to scale or a continuously downward sloping MC curve perfect competition are incompatible. It follows, thus, that a major difference between competitive equilibrium monopoly equilibrium is that while in the case of the former, the MC curve of the firm must be rising at or near the equilibrium level of output, in the case of the latter, this is not essential. A monopoly firm can attain equilibrium under any state of returns to scale or cost conditions, whether constant, rising or falling. The fundamental condition of monopoly equilibrium that must be satisfied is: MC=MR, and the MC curve must intersect the MR curve from below (yet it need not necessarily be rising). Again, when we compare the equilibrium conditions of the two models, we find that the fundamental rule of profit maximization is the same, i.e., equating MC with MR, the characteristic difference lies with respect to price as average revenue and MC. Under perfect competition, price=AR=MR; thus, at equilibrium output, MC=price. In monopoly, on the other hand MRMC. In a perfect normal equilibrium condition of a firm under competition in the long run only, normal profit is realized. In the case of a monopoly, excess monopoly profit can be earned even in the long-run. In fact, the positive difference between price and MC in a monopoly gives excess profit. In the long run, when the competitive firm gets only normal profit, it operates at the minimum point of the LAC curve. Hence the competitive firm tends to be of optimum size. A monopoly firm, on the other hand, attains equilibrium at the falling path of the AC curve, which means it doesn’t utilize its plant capacity to the full extent. The â€Å"excess capacity† in a monopoly firm thus causes it to be of less than optimum size. Usually, the monopoly price tends to be higher while the monopoly output smaller than that under perfect competition. A direct comparison of price and output under monopoly and competition is however difficult because a competitive firm is just a part of the industry as a whole, while a monopoly firm is an industry itself. MONOPOLY EQULIBRIUM UNDER DIFFERENT COST CONDITIONS Firms under all market condition achieve equilibrium at a point where MC=MR and MC is increasing or MC>MR if an additional unit is produced. Under Perfect competition this is possible only if the firm is operating with increasing cost i.e. marginal cost curve is sloping upward. Equilibrium cannot be determined if the marginal cost is decreasing or constant. Equilibrium is possible only in fig A where both necessary and sufficient conditions are fulfilled, whereas in B only the necessary condition is fulfilled and in C neither necessary nor sufficient conditions are satisfied. Unlike perfect competition, equilibrium of a monopoly is possible under increasing constant and decreasing cost as shown in Figure FIGURE shows equilibrium of a monopoly firm with increasing cost. The firms AC and MC curves are sloping upward. MC cuts MR at E. Here MC=MR and for any additional production MC>MR. Therefore firm A reaches equilibrium at point E. TR=OQ1 TP. TC=OQ1SN. Pie=NSTP Figure B, the firm reaches equilibrium at point E1 under constant cost. At point E1 MC=MR and thereafter MC>MR therefore the firm stops its production. At E1. TR=OQ2T1P1. TC=OQ2E1N1. Therefore Pie=N2S2T2P2 Figure C explains the equilibrium under decreasing cost. Equilibrium output is determined at point E2. Where MC=MR and MC>MR for any additional output. TR=OQ3T2P2. TC=OQ3S2N2 Therefore Pie=N2S2T2P2 The firm however will not be able to decide its output if under decreasing cost its marginal cost is always below the MR curve as shown in the figure. Fig shows the indetermination of Equilibrium under decreasing cost. Here the MC is all the times below MR hence it is not possible to determine the Equilibrium output. However the case shown in the above diagram may not be practical as the marginal cost cannot continuously decline and become zero. CONTROL OF MONOPOLY Evaluating the economic effects of pure monopoly or partial monopoly form the standpoint of society as a whole, on income distribution, price, output, resource allocation, technological advancement, distribution of economic power, it has been commonly observed that there are more evils aspects than benefits in a monopolistic industry as compared to a competitive industry. THE FOLLOWING POINTS MAY BE ENLISTED IN THIS CONTEXT: The monopoly price is generally higher than the competitive price. Evidently, the consumer is exploited under a monopoly. Output under monopoly is restricted with a view to earning the maximum economic profits. Thus, there is inefficient allocation of resources in a monopolistic industry. It entails waste of excess capacity. Only in a competitive industry there can be optimum utilization of existing plant capacity .In short, under a monopoly a higher price is charged, a smaller output is produced the system of allocation of resources is inferior to that under perfect competition. Usually, excess profit is reaped by a monopoly firm even in the long run. A purely competitive firm, on the other hand reaps just a normal profit in the long run. By virtue of their control over market supply, monopolists can export high prices to make substantial economic profits .Excessive price charged by the monopolists is regarded as a â€Å"PRIVATE TAX† on consumers. On account of high profiteering by the monopolists, society’s income distribution tends to be unequal unjust .The owners of monopoly business tend to become richer at the cost of the consumers. Big monopoly houses may acquire concentration of economic power ion their hands which also endangers political democracy in the country. A monopolist is supposed to be very conservative in the matter of innovation technological advancement .Since there is no threat of competition from rivals in a monopoly market, the firm has no impulse to develop new products or introduce new techniques in production. The monopolist is satisfied with the status quo. In fact sometimes monopolists may buy up new scientific inventions patents destroy them so to avoid rivalry. They do so in order to save loss arising from the sudden obsolescence of existing plant machinery. This tactic obviously obstructs technical progress of the country. Monopoly monopolistic competition tend to aggravate the problem of unemployment due to under allocation of resources. The actual production frontier of the country is kept unduly much below its potential level. This results in a low pace of economic growth in creating poverty in the midst of plenty Monopoly firm quite often resort to unfair practices like price discrimination or cut throat competition infringement of trade marks of rivals .etc with a view to eliminating or killing potential rivals in the market. Many big monopoly houses have tended to spread political economic corruption. It has been alleged that some political parties even govt. officials in India always have a soft corner for certain big business houses. METHODS OF CONTROL They are as follows: Restriction on entry of new firms Restriction on output Monopolists hold on price determination MEASURES OF CONTROL They are as follows: Legislative measures Promotion of competition Consumers resistance Publicity drive Control of price output Fiscal measures Nationalization Co-operative movement Misconceptions about Monopoly Pricing Profits It is commonly alleged that a monopolist can charge a very high price and earn high profits because he has the control over market supply and is a price-maker. This is really not so. A monopolist cannot determine price on the basis of his supply alone. He has to consider the demand aspect as well. In fact, the monopoly price is determined by the relative strength of the forces of demand and supply. Again, while determining the equilibrium price and output, the monopolist is interested in maximum sale because he wants to maximise total profits and not unit profits. So if the demand is slack, he will have to set a low price corresponding to profit maximising condition : MC = MR. Again, it is also erroneous p take it for granted that the monopolists price is always higher than the competitive price. It, in fact, depends on various considerations. If the demand is highly inelastic, while the supply is under conditions of increasing costs, ben the monopolist will restrict output in order to produce at a lower cost anchearn a higher profit. Under these circumstances, obviously, the monopoly price will be very high compared to the competitive price. For example, private monopoly is socially harmful in respect of production and sale of essential agricultural commodities like food-grains for which the demand is highly inelastic while the supply is under increasing costs on account of the law of diminishing returns operating on land. If, on the other hand, the demand is highly inelastic, but the supply is under increasing returns or decreasing costs condition, the monopoly price would tend to be nearer the competitive price. In such cases, monopoly can be socially tolerated. For instance, in producing comforts and luxury items, if a private monopolist invests huge capital, thereby enjoying the economies of scale so that he may supply goods at a low price at a competitive rate, then, such monopoly can be tolerated. Again, when there is a very limited market for a product, a monopolist can supply it at a lower price on account of its low cost of production due to large-scale economies than what is feasible in a competitive market by a large number of firms producing the goods on a small-scale. The competitive market price in such a case will tend to be high because though P AC, under competition, the AC itself tends to be high due to lack of economies of scale and the small-scale of production adopted by each firm . If, however, there is a monopoly which has to cater to the entire market, it would resort to a large-scale production. Hence, the output will be produced at a much lower cost, so even if the monopolist sets a higher price than AC for the sake of high profit, it may relatively turn out to be lower than that of the competitive firm. Similarly, it is also incorrect to say that the monopolist can always earn abnormally high monopoly profit due to his advantageous position in the market. In many cases, demand and cost situation may not be very favourable to the monopolist, so that he cannot make profits. In the long run, the monopolist may be under the threat of new entry in his line of production, so that he may resort to price limit which gives him a lower profit but not a high maximum profit. Potential competition thus serves as a significant constraint on the behaviour of the monopolist. Again, in some cases, the demand situation may be such that the demand curve or the average revenue curve in the long run may be just tangent to the LAC curve. In this case, the monopolist would earn only a normal profit (see Fig. to understand the situation). In Fig., the monopolist decides an equilibrium output OM, and charges PM price. Since the AR curve is tangent to the LAC curve at point P, Price = Average Revenue = Average Cost. Hence, the monopolist simply earns a normal profit. The only difference between such normal-profit monopoly equilibrium and competitive equilibrium is that the monopolist is producing at less than optimum size, i.e., at a higher average cost, while a competitive firm, earning normal profit, would be producing at a minimum average cost, i.e., it has an optimum size. In other words, under monopoly, even though there is just a normal profit earned, there is unutilised capacity of the plant and resources, while in a competitive firms equilibrium, the normal capacity is fully utilised. Anyway, it can be concluded from the above discussion that the monopolist cannot always earn high monopoly profits. Again, the monopolist in the long run should earn at least normal profits, otherwise he cannot survive. A monopolist finding the cost situation much above the demand consideration in the long run has no alternative but to wind up his business.

The protestant ethic :: essays research papers

Who would probably get the six hours of leisure, a Protestant or a Catholic? The Protestant group is mostly made up of the Northern European descent. The Catholic group comes mostly from the Southern European descent. Supposedly The Northern group was a little more advanced than the Southern group. The Catholics created less industrialized products, while the Protestants created highly advanced things which allowed their industrial lives to prosper. To me this sounds a lot like who is better the light skinned whites are the darker skinned whites. I mean I understand the facts as to what advancements actually came from a certain place but I think that no one Protestant was actually better than another Catholic. One could argue that maybe the Protestant group is a more advanced group because perhaps they have a personal relationship with God and the Catholic group doesn’t. Is that why the Catholic group isn’t as â€Å"blessed† as the Protestants? I mean you could really make up a lot of arguments as to why that is the way that it is. I mean today it is still like this in the world. Guess what the North Americans are a lot more advanced than the Southern Americans. Hmm?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Status is something people aspire to, even if they don’t have the means to achieve it†, (Fancy). Could this mean that the Northern Europeans didn’t have the means to achieve things such as the Protestant did? Why did the Protestants have the means and where did they get them from, was it from God? â€Å"People saw that social mobility was possible for themselves.†(Fancy). â€Å"Hard work was an acceptable means to achieve it† (Fancy). Did the Southern Europeans really work as hard as the Protestants? Maybe the Protestants worked 50 hours more than the Catholics and maybe that is why they seem to have created more of a industrialized nation. I have just listed at least three reasons as to why the Northerners where so much more â€Å"better off†, than the Southerners. I know that Weber also kind of felt the way that I do about this having to really boil down to what spiritual beliefs played a role in who was to be more successful. â€Å"Spirit†, which had its roots from the Protestantism could not have grown in the modern capitalistic world. Weber believed that Europe was already acquainted with capitalism before the Protestant revolt. For a good century or so capitalism had been a growing monster.

Zenith of Islamic Art and Architecture in Iran

VISUAL ART OF PERSIA BY: KHUSHBOO MEHBOOB course title: ZENITH OF ISLAMIC ART & ARCHITECTURE IN IRAN 1. Painting 2. Miniature 3. Calligraphy ? 1. 2. Painting Miniature Nushirvan Eating Food Brought by the Sons of Mahbud: Folio from the Shahnama (Book of Kings), Ilkhanid period (1206–1353), 1330s Iran, Tabriz Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper Nushirvan Receives Mihras, Envoy of Caesar: Folio from the Shahnama (Book of Kings), Ilkhanid period (1206–1353), ca. 1300–1330 Iran or Iraq Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paperKamal-od-Din Behzad Of Herat School, â€Å"Khamseh Nezami† Baysunghur's_Shahname †¢ Garden Scene, Aq Quyunlu period (1396–1508), ca. 1430 Iran, possibly Tabriz Opaque watercolor and gold on undyed silk Khusraw being cared for by Shirin, Safavid miniature painting, Iran, 17th century Allegory of Worldly and Otherworldly Drunkenness: Folio from the Divan (Collected Poems) of Hafiz, Safavid period (1501–1722), ca. 15 31–33 Sultan Muhammad (Iranian, active first half of 16th century) Iran, Tabriz Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paperSaki by Reza Abbasi from the Moraqqa’ e Prince Muhammad-Beik by Reza Abbasi Golshan 1609 Golestan Palace Mollahs in the presence of Nasser-ed-Din Shah Qajar, Iran Fat‘? -‘Ali Shah Qajar, in 1798 3. Calligraphy A Calligraphic Panel in Nastaliq Script. Iran. Dated 1021 AH / 1612 AD. Signed Ahmad Al-Hosseini Qur'an of Ibrahim Sultan, dated 1427; Timurid Iran (Shiraz) Ink, colors, and gold on paper An Illuminated Quran, Iran. Dated 734 AH / 1333 -1334 AD. Mir Emad Hassani (1554 – 1615) Nizam Ganjavi's Khamsa. Iran.Dated 875 AH / 1471 AD. Book of Prayers, commissioned by Fath ‘Ali Shah Persia, Qajar, 19th century, Arabic text in naskh script within gold clouds, interlinear Persian translation; lacquer binding with gold floral design Octagonal Qur’an Case, Persia, Qajar, 19th century, decorated with calligraphic Qur’a nic inscriptions and prayers Lacquer Pen-box, signed by Muhammad al-Sultani, Persia, probably Isfahan, Safavid, 17th century, cartouches containing inscriptions in nastaliq script, and decorated with gold foliate motifsStand for a Qur'an manuscript, Muzzafarid period (1314–93), dated a. h. 761 / a. d. 1360 Made by Hasan ibn Sulaiman al-Isfahani Iran or Central Asia Wood (teak); carved, painted, inlaid THREE SAMANID CALLIGRAPHIC POTTERY BOWLS NISHAPUR, EASTERN IRAN, 10TH CENTURY Each with brown slip painted decoration around the cavetto over white ground, one ‘signed' Ahmad in its centre and inscribed baraka wa yumn wa surur wa sa(‘a)da wa sala(ma), one with stylized bird in its centre 9 7/8in. (25. 3cm. ) diam. (max. ) (3) Mihrab (prayer niche), Ilkhanid period (1206–1353), a. . 755 / a. d. 1354– 55 Iran, Isfahan Mosaic of polychrome-glazed cut tiles on stonepaste body; set into mortar Safavid Cut Steel Panel. Iran. Late 10th century AH / 16th centur y AD Illustrated A Pair of Antique Persian Isfahan Qalamkar Blocked Print & Painting in the Center with Persian Calligraphy at top Wall Hanging Carton. Qajar Dynasty iranian calligraphy on coins Helmet, late 15th century; A Silver Inlaid Brass Bowl. West Iran. 8th century AH / 14th Century AD Casket, brass with inlaid gold and silver, Iran, 1300-1350 Thanks

6 Practical Steps to Building a Professional Handshake

6 Practical Steps to Building a Professional Handshake Never underestimate the importance of a good handshake. Fortune 500 CEOs have even admitted that, given two identically qualified candidates, they’re more likely to give the job to the one with the better handshake. How do you make yours work for you?1.  Get your hands ready.Make sure your right hand is free in situations where you’re likely to need to shake hands. This is a weird detail, but important- especially if you’ve been holding a cold drink in your hand, which might make your handshake cold and clammy! And yes, you should use your right hand. That’s the tradition, and it avoids lots of awkward fumbling. Also, it should go without saying, make sure your hands are clean.2. Aim for the web.You don’t want to only grab the person’s fingers, but you also don’t want to try and swallow their wrist with your hand either. Aim to touch the web between your thumb and forefinger to the web between their thumb and forefinger. Don’t go too hard, but you should practice enough on yourself to get a sense of how it feels when you hit the right spot.3. Minimize the pressure.Yes, you do need  pressure. Firm pressure. But not too firm. And don’t pinch. Don’t crush any bones. But  definitely don’t err on the side of not squeezing enough- there’s nothing worse than a limp handshake.4. Make eye contact.Look your handshake partner straight in the eye, which inspires trust. It’s a nice touch to repeat the name of the person you’re being introduced to while you’re shaking- â€Å"Nice to meet you, Bob!†5.  Project confidence.Whatever you do, don’t panic. You want to be the cool and collected party here. Act confident and no one will know you’re secretly aiming for their web. A good trick to show your poise is to offer your hand first.6. Know when to let go.People who linger too long in a handshake can be considered creepy or clingy. Get in there, g rip with the ideal amount of firmness, shake once, then let go and get on with the exchange. Once you get the balance right, you’ll be forever grateful that you did.

ASSIGNMENT ON LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE MANAGEMENT Essays

ASSIGNMENT ON LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE MANAGEMENT Essays ASSIGNMENT ON LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE MANAGEMENT Paper ASSIGNMENT ON LEADERSHIP AND CHANGE MANAGEMENT Paper Assignment Topic-2: Leaders are born, non made . Discourse the statement with mention to leading model presently in us in administrations. Introduction: The constitution of relationship between followings and leaders that focus on existent alterations and results that reflects through shared intents is fundamentally leading. Leadership besides involves in making alteration non merely in keeping position quotation mark. Another leading of import characteristic is to convey people and do them understanding to come together around a common vision and to convey alteration about coveted hereafter. In many facets, the importance of leading is critical without it households, communities and every bit good as administrations would travel down apart. In other sense, the manner of bettering efficiency, morale, client service and public presentation is the critical facet of leading. It is besides indispensable for the administrations to manage critical state of affairs and take that efficaciously and merely a good leader with good leading ability can take squad successfully. There are different manners of leading basically it is manner the indi vidual trades with that in order to remain alive in his or her place. These are autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. In autocratic leading manner, leader holds all the power and duties. In this manner, employees are assigned to specific undertaking by the leader and anticipate to acquire it done orderly. In individualistic leading manner, leader gives power to employees. There are two or more alternate determinations taken by leader, employees can take any of them from there it depends up to them. In democratic leading manners, leader gives more importance on employees and attempts to promote them and shows attending to persons. Current construction of leading: A good considerate of leading requires a assemblage of thoughts and we unfortunately can non fallback on a simple theory to explicate it. We will hold to discourse that how leading can suit within the administration alternatively of prosecuting in conversation. The administrations have a construction to work signifier through making an understanding about leading. Administration must hold to be comprehensive for everyone to go a leader. Leader s demand to be relational, it would merely be possible because of the ground there is a spiritual side to leading. Leaderships must hold strong religious strong beliefs and beliefs to set up a base for their personal value systems. This translates into releasing one-self to others and it works best when the leader is compelled to work on things that represent his or her deepest values. These values can be moral based on values that are outside the organisation or ethical values within the organisation. Therefore, leaders must be really much grounded in covering with values -struggling with a tenseness between alteration and stableness what works and what does non work.[ 1 ] Arguments in support of Leader s are born non made : Historically there are many leading attacks that linked with different theories of leading. It can be discussed through nature poetries nature deliberate. The Great adult male theory and Trait Theory represented the best nature statement related to above statement. Great Man theory of leading: 1900 s: This is the earliest theories of leading. At that clip most of the research workers believed that leaders are born, non made . In Great Man theory, describes that the chief secrets of a great leader lies in being born great. It gives importance on the survey of all the great leaders who were great, may be they are from nobility or from the lower categories but they had the chances to take. By happening out those people who did great things such as Nepolean, Hitler, Curchill if we go farther back so Lord Krisna, Gesus and Hazrat Mohammad were really easy to indicate out them. Harmonizing to Great Man theory, it considers that leaders must hold built-in capacity for leading that leader s are born non made. This theory frequently depict great leaders are brave, mythic and intended to lift leading when needed. Leaderships must hold some qualities like good commanding power, inventiveness, good character, bravery, self-control ; ferocity and expressiveness by Born that ca nt be possessed through acquisition or through peculiar taught programmes. Trait Theories of Leadership: 1900s-1940: Trait theories are similar to Great Man theories in some ways. It assumes that leaders must possess general traits or personal characteristics that they get by Born and common to all and make them better matched to leading. In Trait Theory of leading merely tried to happen traits of well-known leader that were frequent. Sometimes Trait theories recognize demanding personality and behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. This attack was based on the strategy that is individualism and personal intrinsic worth that distinguish successful leader signifier everyone else. In 1994, Yukl conducted research on traits and accomplishments and linked to organizational effectivity. These were: energy and force per unit area forbearance, self-control, interior venue of control, emotional adulthood, worthiness, domination inspiration, making orientation, need for association. Arguments opposite to Leader s are born non made: The other leading theories explain societal and contextual position like Behavioural Theories, Situational Theories, and Normative theories, transactional and transformational Theories. The Behavioral theories assume that leaders are made non born. Chiefly Behavioural theory focal points on leader s action non upon internal province and mental qualities. Behavioral Theories of Leadership: In this theory chiefly concentrate on behavior of leaders in the way of the followings and this became a taking manner of leading nearing within the administration. Diverse forms of manners were grouped together and categorized as manners. These activities of direction through preparation became really celebrated. Basically these manners are- Undertaking concern: Here leaders give of import on aims accomplishment through high degree productiveness, and ways to pull off people and activities for accomplishing those aims. Peoples concern: Here leaders focus on their followings as people what their demands, involvements, what their jobs, how it can be development and so on. They are non merely units of production or means to an terminal. Directing leading: This manner is considered by leaders make determinations for others and wanting all the followings or subsidiaries will prosecute that waies. Participative leading: Here leaders take portion in decision-making by sharing among others. ( Wright 1996: 36-7 ) Situational Theories of Leadership: In situational theories of leading gives more importance on the different state of affairss like where the undertaking to be accomplished, tantrum surrounded by personalities, power and perceptual experiences. Effectiveness of leading relies on those state of affairss. These situational theories are besides called Eventuality theories because this Theory is reliant upon the demands or the position of the state of affairss. The Hersey Blanchard Theory: This situational theory developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard and it focuses on activity and operational environment of the administration. Their chief attack was that followings will ever acquire favor from the leader about their willingness to make the occupation. In this attack leaders have to understand about the followings decently and have to place their phase of development and harmonizing to that use the leading manner. With taking aid from Ohio State surveies and develop four leading manners that is available for managers- Directing or stating Coaching or selling Participating or back uping Delegating Directing or stating: Occupation duties is defined by the leader and inform to followings about when to make that and where to make it and how can it be done. Coaching: It s a two manner communicating here leader gives supportive way to followings and sometimes inquire for thoughts or suggestion from followings every bit good. Supporting or take parting: The leader and follower portion in determination consequently to accomplish a maximal values like what will be the best to vie with high deserving occupation Delegating: Followings get small support from the leaders. Deductions of this theory: one job is that it does non count how difficult leaders try but they are against to alter from one manner to another. + Supportive Coaching Supportive behavior Delegating Stating Directive behavior + Figure: Different manners 1960s-70: In Contingency/situational theory argues-what leaders perform that can be determined by that state of affairss and that behaviours must be related with that environmental state of affairss in manus. A good situational leader can merely use different leading manners with the altering state of affairss. The best action taken by the leader depends on of the leader depends on a scope of situational factors. How the theoretical account works merely to accomplish consequences: Designation of elaborate occupation and undertaking Buttockss present public presentation Matching leader response Different leading manners could act upon by the broad scope of variables depending on the different environmental state of affairss and it creates an impact on leader behavior, in which leader can work. There are some critical eventualities like organizational volume, complexness in undertaking, adulthood of worker and so many others. Harmonizing to situational theory, situational factors are limited and vary harmonizing to that eventuality and specified behavior of leader can merely work in certain sort of state of affairss non for all. There are three most outstanding theories of contingency- Path-Goal theory Feidler s Contingency theory The Vroom-Yetton s theoretical account Path-Goal theory: In this theory harmonizing to House ; 1971: chiefly concentrate on leader s motivational map and it can be enhanced by increasing single final payments to subsidiaries for work end accomplishment, gain personal satisfaction by intensifying chances. Harmonizing to these theories key occupier is that the effectivity can be measured through the behaviors of different leaders that will be influenced by situational variables. Fiedler s Contingency theory: In 1971, Feidler proposed elucidation on that how group public presentation can be affected through the dealingss of leading orientation, group scene and occupation features. Leader s state of affairs can mensurate though assorted extents like relationships between leaders and members, construction of occupation and place power. The relationship between leader and member: This refers to how the leader is liked by the group members. When good relationship exists between leaders and members so all are get high satisfaction in work and administrations values is achieved through single values. If the relation is traveling severely so there is deficiency of common trust. Another of import term group coherence, it is really hard to do all the employees work together when it low. The Vroom-Yetton s theoretical account of leading: This theoretical account is widely used in the development of leading in corporate Centre and besides gets adequate support from practicians. The most of import facets of this theoretical account is that legitimates both the bossy and democratic leader behavior and matching that is suited in punctilious state of affairss. This theoretical account besides provides fruitful information about what would be the perfect clip of utilizing groups or opposed to personality determination devising. This theoretical account has some restrictions like leaders are ever have to take determination in choosing of leading manners, it considers each determination in term of state of affairs but it does non depend on old factor. Transactional Theories: This attack of leading was most popular at that clip and this is defined by Gibson, Ivancevich and Donnelly. It has some similar characteristics with situational theories. It s a sort of leading where leaders find out what the demand of followings to accomplish organizational public presentation as a agency of wagess. In this theory has several premises like it motivates people through wages and acquire penalty for the cause of errors, followings know what they have to make harmonizing to way for the intent of acquiring wagess. Sometimes they use direction by exclusion techniques. The transactional leader sometimes utilize Path-Goal theory as a model but leader take all the duties for puting ends, mission for deriving effectivity. Transformational Theories: Followings are motivated and inspired by the transmutation leaders and to accomplish consequences more than desired. This is the most recent theories of leading. This leading ability based on different personality factors like personal appeal, individual attending and rational diversion. There are several effects of transformational leading defined by Bernard Bass and Bruce Avolio ( 1994 ) .These are as follows: Motivating others to affect them in work from new perceptual experience Consciousness about what the mission of the administration Developing ability of other s to accomplish public presentation at exceeds degree Involved in finding the benefits of the administrations by actuating the beyond their attending as they could hold. Theory X and Theory Y of Leadership: In 1960, Douglus and McGregor described this leading theory that the activities of leaders are based on their thought and considerations about the persons at work. He besides described the behavior of leaders in two contrasting sets of bliefs.These are theory X and Theory Y. The premises of Theory X: Average single do non like work and avoid if they can Individual demand to maintain forcing for accomplishing desired aims by directing, commanding and endangering through giving penalty This attack can take actions The premises of Theory Y: Peoples will work in their ain duties and command harmonizing to how they are committed. In common people have some qualities like creativity and imagination The mean persons are non merely accepted but look for aims. Charismatic Leadership: This theory is defined by Max Weber and chiefly focal points on leader s magnetic features. Through these features leaders influence the followings and they can alter anything. It is non possible to entree these qualities by ordinary people by and large they are extraordinary. They are like charming leaders they got particular power to manage complex state of affairss. Leadership theoretical accounts: Leaderships how they act and the manner how they do that can be understood by the aid of Leadership theoretical accounts. There are two theoretical accounts: the Four Framework Approach and the Managerial Grid.[ 2 ] Four Framework Approach In the Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal ( 1991 ) propose that leaders exhibit leading behavior in one of four types of models: Structural, Human Resource, Political, or Symbolic. Harmonizing to this theoretical account, leaders can be place into one of these four different models and there are times when one attack is proper and times when it would non be. It besides describes that manners may either efficient or inefficient depending on state of affairss. It would be better non to trust on one of the four different attacks. It can explicate by an illustration, for the period of major organizational alteration ; Structural leading manner is more preferred than symbolic leading manner ; when an administration demand strong growing at that clip symbolic attack is far better than structural attack. So we need to be cognizant about utilizing these attacks and its restrictions. Structural Framework In structural model, leaders are focuses on agreement, scheme, environment, executing, experimentation, and change. It besides describes the leaders as a societal designer and their leading is design and analyse. Human Resource Framework In human resource model describes the effective fortunes of leading ; the leader is a vehicle and retainer whose leading manner is sustain, recommending, and authorization. In other ways for an inefficient status of leading, the leader is a soft touch, whose leading manner is abandonment and fraudulence. Human Resource approaches leaders have faith in people and portion their belief ; they are perceptible and available ; they empower, increase engagement, support, portion their information, and travel in determination devising along into the organisation. Political Model In political model, the leader is a candidate, whose leading manner is confederation and edifice which best describes an effectual leading state of affairs. In a useless leading state of affairs, the leader is a streetwalker ; leading manner of leader is maneuvering. Political leaders make clear what they desire and what they can acquire through measuring the allocation of power and involvements ; they assemble linkages to other stakeholders, usage trickeries foremost, and so utilize dialogue and subjugation merely if necessary. Symbolic Framework In symbolic attack gives precedence on leading manner that leaders use for inspiration as an efficient state of affairs. In other sense of inefficient leading state of affairs is leaders are fool and their manners of leading is like fume. Managerial Grid In 1985 harmonizing to the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid, besides recognized as the Leadership Grid describes two axes. Vertically it describes concern for people and horizontally describes concern for undertaking. Both of these axes have range from 0 to 9. Majority of people plunge someplace near to the Centre of the two axes Middle of the Road. Peoples can notch up on the utmost terminal of the graduated tables by traveling to the extremes. There are four types of leading manners by making to extremes ; that is, Authoritarian strong on mundane occupations, puny on people related plants State Club strong on people related plants, weak on mundane occupations Impoverished weak on mundane occupations, weak on people related plants Team Leader strong on mundane occupations, strong on people related plants Authoritarian Leader Peoples who get this ranking are really much undertaking related and are stiff on their workers. These types of leader ever expect people to acquire work done about what they precisely said with no issue or argument. Team Leader These types of single lead positively and act upon all the squad members to make in highest potency, both as squad members and as people. They encourage the squad to make squad ends every bit expeditiously as possible, while besides working diligently to do stronger the bonds between the assorted members. Productive squads are lead by them successfully. Qualities of people in leading places: There are three degrees of leading places in an administration. These are strategic degree, operational degree and squad degree. A good leader should possess some good qualities to manage this place efficaciously and tactfully. These are as follows: Good character Good personality Devotion Self confidence-this will assist them to place subsidiary s endowment fundamentally that will assist the concern to travel up Good communicating capability- it is really of import for any concern to run efficaciously without this it is impossible Good learner-it will assist them to develop Hazard taking ability Problem work outing capableness Relationships-this qualities need to keep positive relationship in all countries Creative minded-this qualities help them to convey any alteration when there is esteem demands in order to prolong in the concern for accomplishing high degree of success Positive attitudes Servant leadership-decision devising ability through sing the sentiment attraction with concern vision by exciting the followings Courage Advanced Good motive power Leadership development enterprises: There are several patterns which describe the best leading development enterprises. First, the good committedness between top leaders and directors and be extremely regarded, associated with concern scheme and resolute on the right concern issues. Second, through the designation of successful leading competences. Third, leading development is more of import than preparation of direction. If leaders are effectual in administration so all degrees of people in administration steered up. Fourthly, need to use leading all degrees of direction. Fifthly, leading development programme must include on-going attack like assignments for development, meetings with abroad opposite numbers, instance surveies etc. Finally, the successful incorporation of talent direction.[ 3 ] Examples of Starbucks company leading: In the history of Starbucks growing Howard Schultz was the greatest leader. In 1982, when Starbucks was traveling to worsen after presenting in the market. At that clip Howard Schultz was get appointed as a new CEO for Starbucks and accelerated the whole to go a planetary trade name worldwide. In my sentiment he merely transforms everything within a short clip. He made people understand that selling a cup of java in Starbucks is a lifestyle acquaintance, unlike any other cafe . He applied leading eventuality attack to do alterations in organizational scenes. Under Schultz s leading, the company has achieved a figure of mileposts. Starbucks was one of the first in private held companies in North America to offer two alone benefits to its spouses ( employees ) . He chiefly focused on clients and made them understand their demands.[ 4 ] Decision: At the terminal we can reason by summarizing on that leaders are born, non made . In early age of Leadership they thought that leader should posses some particular endowment in Born. That can non be possessed through acquisition, or developed though preparation. They did nt see the places every bit good as they were merely born to take. In current research on leading focused on the personality trait of leader that should hold. Now in our administration all the leaders are good educated and decently trained. They have got the cognition to manage the critical state of affairss. Presently in compared to corporate sector, Most of the administrations now concentrating on chief diverseness enterprises and it can undertake through behavioral attack of leading. These diverseness enterprises can merely be implemented through behavioral attack in todays or tomorrow s in the administrations. The quality of the leader is really of import. The success of the company is to the full depending on t he good quality of the leader.

The Importance of Living essays

The Importance of Living essays The Importance of Living written by Lin Yutang is not only a book telling what life is and how to live a life, but also display a contrast between cultures of U.S. and China. From several chapters about aspects of life, I get some understanding as below: A QUICK COMPARISON BETWEEN CULTURAL SYSTEMS OF U.S. AND CHINA Looking at Chinese and American cultural traits from a common sense perspective, we usually find the following preconceptions about the two national characters: group reference criteria individualistic desire for eternity eager to change The critical concern is to what extent this comparison holds true. Seemingly convincing conclusions based on assumptions or a deductive approach may risk the possibility of being biased or stereotyped. Generalization seems dangerous but necessary: dangerous, because an easy categorization may have no solid ground and, therefore, is prone to biases; necessary, because, understanding and adapting to a different culture can never be achieved without a certain degree of cross-cultural consensus. A generalization is valid if a commitment is made to seriously consider and evaluate the key forces underlying a particular culture. Generalized descriptions do not cover all individual behaviors or cultural phenomena. The fact that some individual Chinese are impatient does not disprove the generalization that the Chinese as a nation are patient. Ideally, statistical evidence should be available for generalizations, but unfortunately not all cultural facts are statistically testable. PRIMARY FACETS OF CHINESE CULTURE-CONFUCIANISM IN BRIEF As a moral system, Confucianism focuses on the relationship between man and man, which is defined by five virtues: humanity/benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), wisdom (zhi), and trustworthiness (xin). Another focus is on the five hierarchical relationships between father and son, ruler and ruled, husband and wife, elder brother and y...

Applied Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Applied Leadership - Essay Example Overall, this review highlights the importance for a leader to be flexible to the situation and context in which they find themselves making decisions and taking action. It appears that there is no one set formula to be an effective leader, instead professional and personal development must be made lifelong learning goals. Professional development may take the form of training courses, or getting back to the 'ground floor' of the organization. Personal development for the leader requires critical reflection on one's outcomes, to bring awareness of one's strengths and weaknesses, as well as what makes one unique. It is anticipated that this paper will provide a concise collection of leadership definitions that can contribute to student learning of leadership, and the qualities that are necessary to motivate others to be led by them. Leadership is a role that requires valuable skills as well as a reliance on innate personal characteristics. Effective leadership is highly demanded in the product and service industries. The act of leadership is complex and is determined by the credibility of the leader; importantly the leader must be able to exhibit commitment to a clear set of values (Kouzes & Posner, 2003). Characteristics of a good leader are often identified as being: honesty, competency, a good communicator, inspiring and forward-thinking (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). Definitions of a Leader My Definition My personal definition of leadership is, a person who is able to act in an ethical manner and so keeps in mind the rights and dignity of other person's they interact with. Complementary to this, is transparency of decision and actions, as well as demonstrating accountability for decision and action outcomes. Also, leadership is cultivated through the practice of reflective thinking, as when a person critically considers their decisions and actions in light of the outcomes. I see leadership as a flexible behavior, which adapts itself to the context of the situation, whilst remaining aligned with the leader's temperament. An example of flexible leadership is when socio-cultural, political, economic and/or another's personal characteristics are included in how a decision is arrived at, or a solution implemented. Finally, leadership is the embodied in the skill of communication, the leader being able to empathize with others, listen to their needs and expectations, and can learn what mo tivates and empowers others to try, persist, achieve, and to adapt to unsuccessful outcomes and focus on solutions. Five Other Definitions Using email, five friends were contacted to ask them who they determined was a good leader. Their responses are outlined below: R ---- suggests that the Prime Minister of the UK, Tony Blair as the embodiment of good leadership. With the modification of the National Health System, beginning in 1997, Blair's

The Space Shuttle Challenger Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Space Shuttle Challenger - Personal Statement Example Seven occupants died innocently in the incidence that occurred on 28th January 1986. That was tragic, putting accountability and integrity of the designers into question. The scientists, having been warned of the danger that lay in wait if they opted to carry on with the launch questions their credibility and concern for humanity. It was evident that they cared little about the safety of the crew, and their anxiety to make headlines for launching the much talked about the space shuttle. There had been early warnings of the dangers that lay ahead if the idea was carried out. The space shuttle had structural failures, with an expert raising a rather worrying alarm concern. The O-rings of the shuttle could only survive temperatures at only 40 degrees. Any temperatures below that, safety and survival of the shuttle were not guaranteed. On the morning of the launch, the temperatures were as low as 18 degrees. The expert termed the idea of launching the shuttle on such a day as absurd and ridiculous. It was bound to explode anyway. This raises a rather disturbing question, why the ignorance by the scientists? Why were they so eager to launch the shuttle? The incidence calls for personal accountability of all parties involved in the success of any project. Every party ought to play its part in the project, making sure that nothing goes wrong during the whole project. Team spirit is portrayed by this incidence, where it is the responsibility of every member of the group to play their individual roles for the success of the project. If there is no proper articulation of ideas and thoughts, if there are flaws in one section of the implementing group, the project is likely to be a total failure, just like the space shuttle incidence. The importance of other team players exhibiting accountability and diligence in their work is a clear indication of their readiness to protect the end user of the product in question.  

Field Trip Report Lab Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Field Trip - Lab Report Example More than fifty percent of the wetlands found in the world are known to have disappeared as from 1900. As such a variety of conservation efforts have been put in place so as to preserve this crucial environmental asset. A wetland is any area that is known to hold water either permanently or temporarily. Some wetlands only hold water for a short period of one or two months during spring while others hold water all year-round. Some of the types of wetlands include fens, marshes, mangroves, swamps, and bogs. The main objective of this trip was to give the students a chance to take note of the wetland ecosystems and urban forests birds in the surrounding area. The trip would thus help the students develop an understanding and appreciation of biodiversity and natural habitats. The field trip was carried out on April 11 (Saturday), 2015 between 9:30 AM – 12:00 AM. There were three different wetlands studied during the field trip. The weather was sunny with no cloud that was very favorable for the excursion. The first wetland was H shape and was identified at 9:30 AM. Located at 31.1941 N and 120.4430 E, it measured 128.8 M in length and 86M in width. The green alga, phragmites, and other insects existed in this wetland. The air temperature at this wetland was 18 C and the water temperature at 16.4 C, and the PH was 8.94. Other measurements taken at this wetland were 0.33 mg ammonia, 1.39mg nitrogen, 271.3 water conductivity and 9.54 dissolved oxygen. The second wetland was seen at 10:30 AM and located at 31.1942 N and120.4440 E. The length of this wetland was 240 M and width of 190M. The temperature recorded was 18.5 C for air and 14C for water. Green alga and dragonflies lived at this wetland whose dissolved oxygen level was 6.41 and conductivity a t 246.5. The PH was recorded at 10.47 and ammonia and nitrogen levels at 0.47 mg and 2.23 mg respectively. The last wetland was identified at 11:19 AM. Located at 31.1939 N and

Annual Reports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Annual Reports - Essay Example Such difference may arise from content organization of the major elements of an annual report or may be due to order of arrangement of the report’s sections. In content organization, and with major focus on presentation of financial items, the financial statements may be presented in either account form or in a report form. The major difference between the two forms is in their orientation. While the report format is horizontally presented, the account format is vertically presented. The financial statements can also be communicated in exact figures or round off figures. Similarly, a report can document each item of the financial statements or group items and present their cumulative values (Nikolai, Bazley and Jones, 2009). Reports may also vary in the order of presentation of the major elements such as financial statements, â€Å"management discussion and analysis,† â€Å"report on adequacy and internal control,† among other sections (Warren and Reeve, 2006, p. 681). A review of annual reports of McDonalds and Yum Brands communicates a number of differences in the organizations’ approach to communicating their annual reports. The first major difference is in the order of presentation of the reports sections. McDonalds’ annual report begins with management’s discussion and analysis of the corporation’s performance, both financial and operational. Presentation of financial statements that is facilitated by explanatory notes follows this before reports on the organization’s internal control system and reporting (McDonalds, 2011). Yum’s report however begins by presenting the annual meeting before accounting for the organization’s activities in which it presents financial statements. The reports’ outlines therefore communicate McDonalds focus on reporting its financial performance while Yum prioritizes information regarding its planned decisions on management and human resource. Both

Mergers and aquisitions in the USA banking Dissertation

Mergers and aquisitions in the USA banking - Dissertation Example For the past fifteen years or so mergers and acquisitions in the world of American banking have increased tremendously. There are a number of reasons behind this, such as increase in competition among the financial institutions, the deregulation of the banking sector and upheavals in the economy as well as the interest rates. The paper studies the impact of the consolidation of banks and its effects on the wealth of the shareholders. Though it is largely thought that consolidation is likely to have a positive effect on the wealth of the shareholders, study has found that it is not the case. Thus the thesis discusses in detail the reasons due to which the financial firms of USA are likely to undergo the process of mergers and acquisitions and its impact on the shareholders’ monetary resources. The sample spaces taken for the project are the mergers and acquisitions of the past ten years. The recent most acquisition in the American banking sector is taken into account (the acqui sition of Golden West Financial by Wachovia in 2006) is studied in great detail. The period from the 1930s to the mid 1970s has been the most stable in the history of the American banking sector (Grullon, Michaely, Swary, 1997). However, causes such as an increase in competition, the deregulation of the banking sector and upheavals in the economy as well as the interest rates of the country has resulted in numerous unprecedented problems for the bankers

Eat at my restaurant cash flow Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Eat at my restaurant cash flow - Essay Example Net income values are a good indicator of the business progress. Obtained via accrual accounting, net income value shows the net profits or losses that the company achieves in the specified period. Moreover, net income values can easily be obtained from the income statement and represents the difference between all accounting revenues both direct and indirect and all accounting expenses. As matter of fact, many investors depend on net income figures to make investment decisions. Perceptibly, dividends are always proportional to net income. Therefore, if the trend of net income figure is increasing then the company can attracts investors due to expected rise of the shares. The implication is that, the firm can easily access capital, and to be precise equity, hence stands a better chance to expand. However, profitability and insolvency is not always guaranteed by positive net income figures. Note that, allow net income values could be as a result of a high expenses figure which might h ave originated from high depreciation of assets. If the value of these expenses is one time, or rather does not influence s operational saes, then the net income figure falsely predicts the firm’s financial status. It’s to the opinion of many scholars that cash dictates financial position and thus, cash flow predicts long term profitability. Literary a positive net cash flow from operating activities implies that the business is collecting more cash that it’s spending and positive trend predicts a bright future.

Annual Reports Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Annual Reports - Essay Example Such difference may arise from content organization of the major elements of an annual report or may be due to order of arrangement of the report’s sections. In content organization, and with major focus on presentation of financial items, the financial statements may be presented in either account form or in a report form. The major difference between the two forms is in their orientation. While the report format is horizontally presented, the account format is vertically presented. The financial statements can also be communicated in exact figures or round off figures. Similarly, a report can document each item of the financial statements or group items and present their cumulative values (Nikolai, Bazley and Jones, 2009). Reports may also vary in the order of presentation of the major elements such as financial statements, â€Å"management discussion and analysis,† â€Å"report on adequacy and internal control,† among other sections (Warren and Reeve, 2006, p. 681). A review of annual reports of McDonalds and Yum Brands communicates a number of differences in the organizations’ approach to communicating their annual reports. The first major difference is in the order of presentation of the reports sections. McDonalds’ annual report begins with management’s discussion and analysis of the corporation’s performance, both financial and operational. Presentation of financial statements that is facilitated by explanatory notes follows this before reports on the organization’s internal control system and reporting (McDonalds, 2011). Yum’s report however begins by presenting the annual meeting before accounting for the organization’s activities in which it presents financial statements. The reports’ outlines therefore communicate McDonalds focus on reporting its financial performance while Yum prioritizes information regarding its planned decisions on management and human resource. Both

Eat at my restaurant cash flow Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Eat at my restaurant cash flow - Essay Example Net income values are a good indicator of the business progress. Obtained via accrual accounting, net income value shows the net profits or losses that the company achieves in the specified period. Moreover, net income values can easily be obtained from the income statement and represents the difference between all accounting revenues both direct and indirect and all accounting expenses. As matter of fact, many investors depend on net income figures to make investment decisions. Perceptibly, dividends are always proportional to net income. Therefore, if the trend of net income figure is increasing then the company can attracts investors due to expected rise of the shares. The implication is that, the firm can easily access capital, and to be precise equity, hence stands a better chance to expand. However, profitability and insolvency is not always guaranteed by positive net income figures. Note that, allow net income values could be as a result of a high expenses figure which might h ave originated from high depreciation of assets. If the value of these expenses is one time, or rather does not influence s operational saes, then the net income figure falsely predicts the firm’s financial status. It’s to the opinion of many scholars that cash dictates financial position and thus, cash flow predicts long term profitability. Literary a positive net cash flow from operating activities implies that the business is collecting more cash that it’s spending and positive trend predicts a bright future.

Linguistics Plus Essay Example for Free

Linguistics Plus Essay A. The Backround Of Study In the preceding chapters , linguistics has been discussed mainly as the scientific study of languages. According to this view, linguistic is a theoritical, abstract, academic subject. It describes the nature of human language activity in scientific terms and linguistics are see to belong to different schools of thought and to hold competing linguistic theories. We have seen what this view of linguistics has to contribute to language teaching. There is another view of linguistics which cuts across all schools of linguistic thought and is common ground among all linguistics. In this view,linguistics is abody of attitudes and knowledge which result from the study of things like nature of language as a communicative, social activity : language in the individual , his speech mechanism and mental capacities for language : language in society : varieties of language , the rigorous description of particular languages , etc . This common ground the linguistics is immediately relevant to whole field of language teaching . B. The Formulation Of Study Based on the backrgound of study that explained, we formulate some problems that will be explained in this discussion, there are : 1. What is the meaning of psycholinguistics? 2. What is language acquisition? 3. is the first language learning the same as first language acuisition? 4. What is the interference from L1 in learning L2? C. The Perpose Of Writing To obtain a focused, it is necessary to tell the purpose of this paper. The purposes of writing this paper are: 1. Make the readers know about Psycholinguistic , language acquisition , First and second language, Motivation in L2 learning , and Language Interference. 2. Knowing the different between First and Secong Language D. Research Of Methodology. There are many methods that can be used in educational research, such as historical method, descriptive method, experimental method etc. We use the description method in order to meet the purpose of the research. CHAPTER 2 LINGUISTIC PLUS (CHAPTER 6 IN BOOK) A. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PSIKOLINGUISTIK As its name suggests, psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. Some of these are: how language is received and produced by language user : our memory span of language: motivation in language learning : how L1 Habits interface with L2 learning billingualism and mental development : the use of language in concept formation; and language acquistion or development. Seperti namanya, psikolinguistik adalah studi lapangan yang menggabungkan psikologi dan linguistik. Istilah itu sendiri diciptakan pada tahun 1951. Meskipun penelitian telah terjadi bahkan pada abad kesembilan belas dalam bentuk studi perkembangan bahasa. Ini mencakup berbagai macam topik yang menarik bagi guru bahasa. Beberapa di antaranya adalah: bagaimana bahasa diterima dan dihasilkan oleh pengguna bahasa: memori kita rentang bahasa: motivasi dalam belajar bahasa: bagaimana Kebiasaan L1 antarmuka dengan pembelajaran belajar L2 dan perkembangan mental: penggunaan bahasa dalam pembentukan konsep, dan akuisisi bahasa atau pembangunan. B. LANGUAGE ACQUISTION TRANSISI BAHASA The last mentioned topic is currently being much investigated by TG grammarians because their linguistic theory makes such on the language producing ability of human beings. It is therefore of interest to them, as it is to teachers, to find out how language is acquired. ( it may be noted at this point that they make a distinction between language acquisition or development and language learning . The first language or mother tongue is acquired, while the second language is learned. ) Topik terakhir yang disebutkan saat ini sedang diselidiki oleh banyak tatabahasawan tradisional grammar karena teori linguistik mereka membuatnya seperti bahasa dapat menghasilkan kemampuan manusia. Oleh karena itu sangat menarik bagi mereka, terutama untuk guru, untuk mengetahui bagaimana bahasa diperoleh. (Mungkin terdapat pada bahasan ini bahwa mereka membuat perbedaan antara penguasaan bahasa atau pengembangan dan pembelajaran bahasa asli atau bahasa ibu yang langsung diperoleh, sedangkan bahasa asing harus dipelajari. ) There are two theories of language acquisition: the cognitive-code learning theory f-voured by the transformational generative linguists and the habit-formation theory of the structural linguists. The habit-formation theory is in effect the aplication of learning theory to language acquisition. It involves conditioning and reinforcement to shape a response until it is like the model . An example mat make the process clear. An infant may accidentally produce what sound like â€Å"mama† ,on his babbling and the mother reinforces this by smiling , kissing, cuddling him.. This encourages him to produce the sounds again and the nearer they approach the word â€Å"mama† , the more pleasure the mother shows until the child learns to say the word correctly every time with reference to her. The whole process is described as â€Å" shaping† the response and strengthening it by selective reinforcement. The response is encouraged to recur or strengthened by the smile or nod , or whatever is reinforcing to the child. Repeated occurences of the response from habit. Imitation plays as important a role as repetition in the theory. The child imitates the adults he hears and is again reinforced for correct responses. This theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. Ada dua teori akuisisi bahasa: teori belajar kode kognitif mempelajari teori f-voured oleh ahli bahasa transformasi generatif linguistik dan teori-kebiasaan hasil pembentukan ahli bahasa struktural. Teori formasi kebiasaan yang pada kenyataannya aplikasi dari teori belajar akuisisi bahasa. Ini melibatkan pengkondisian dan penguatan untuk membentuk respon sampai seperti model atau contoh yang ada, misalnya sebuah kaset untuk membuatnya sebagai contoh. Contoh lain adalah Bayi yang dapat menghasilkan sebuah kata yang terdengar seperti mama, saat mengoceh dan ibunya memperkuat ini dengan memberikan senyuman, mencium,atau memeluk dia . Hal ini dapat mendorong dia untuk menghasilkan suara lagi dan semakin dekat dengan kata mama yang sebenarnya, respon senang yang ditunjukan ibunya itu terus ditunjukan hinngga anak belajar mengucapkan kata kata dengan. Seluruh proses yang digambarkan sebagai pembentuk respon dan penguatan dengan penguatan selektif. Respon yang didorong untuk muncul kembali atau diperkuat oleh senyum atau anggukan, atau apapun yang dapat memperkuat kepada anak untuk melakukan sesuatu. Kejadian yang diulang dari respon dan dari kebiasaan. Permainan meniru sama penting peranannya sebagai teori. Anak meniru orang dewasa, ia mendengar lagi dan diperkuat oleh respon yang diberikan orang disekitarnya. Teori pemerolehan bahasa didasarkan pada pandangan bahwa bahasa adalah perilaku yang dihasilkan dari kebiasaan dan kebiasaan yang dibentuk oleh praktek dan pengulangan. The cognitive-code learning theory states that language is rule-governed behaviour and that in language acquisition, the infant learns the set of rules that will produce the sentences of the language. How does he arrive at the set of rules? TG grammarians say human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), which enables the child to form a series of hypotheses about the language which he hears , as he grows up. At each stage in his language development he tests his hypothesis (the set of rules he has formulated so far) against what he hears ( the language data) and revises it accordingly , until he reaches adult competence. But what does the LAD consist of? The theory is that it consists of those linguistic universals to be found the deep, deep structure of all languages. There is no agreement or certainty yet about what these universals are apart from the  fact that they must be certain abstract syntactic and semantic categories and relationships, though there may be a neurophysiological basis in the brain. Examples of such relationships which have been postulated are: those between noun and verb as in case grammar; that between subject and predicate; and catagories like NP , VP , Adv. These universals are said to be present in the structure of all languages but each language realises them in different way in surface structure and language learning consists in learning how it is done in that particular language . The linguists are making cross-cultural studies of language acquisition in order to get evidence of linguistic universals, but the data collected so far are still sketchy though certain features in language appear in about the same sequence and at about the same age all over the world. Teori Kode kognitif belajar menyatakan bahwa bahasa adalah aturan aturan perilaku dan bahwa dalam akuisisi bahasa, bayi mempelajari seperangkat aturan yang akan menghasilkan kalimat bahasa. Bagaimana ia bisa sampai pada seperangkat aturan? Tatabahasawan TG mengatakan manusia dilahirkan dengan perangkat penguasaan bahasa (LAD), yang memungkinkan anak untuk membentuk serangkaian hipotesis tentang bahasa yang ia dengar, saat ia tumbuh. Pada setiap tahap dalam perkembangan bahasa, ia menguji hipotesis tersebut (seperangkat aturan yang telah dirumuskan sejauh ini) terhadap apa yang ia dengar (data bahasa) dan merevisi (menerjemahkan artinya), sampai ia mencapai kompetensi dewasa. Tapi apa saja penyusun LAD itu ? Tidak ada kesepakatan atau kepastian tentang apa saja penyusun LAD tersebut dan tak ada yang terlepas dari kenyataan bahwa orang orang universal linguistik harus memastikan kategori sintaksis dan semantik abstrak, meskipun mungkin ada dasar neurofisiologi di otak. Contoh hubungan tersebut yang telah disebutkan adalah antara nomina dan verba seperti dalam tata bahasa, bahwa antara subjek dan predikat, dan kategori seperti NP, VP, Adv. Itu dikatakan terdapat dalam struktur dari semua bahasa, tetapi setiap bahasa menempatkan mereka dengan cara yang berbeda dalam struktur permukaan dan pembelajaran tertentu. Para ahli bahasa membuat studi lintas-budaya , untuk mendapatkan bukti yang umum tentang linguistik, tetapi data yang dikumpulkan sejauh ini masih samar meskipun fitur tertentu dalam bahasa muncul di sekitar urutan yang sama dan pada sekitar usia yang sama di seluruh dunia . The teacher of second language needs to take of these two theories of language acquisition since they have given rise to schools of thought on language teaching. If language acquisition is a matter of habit formation, then the language teacher must concentrate on performance. Let the pupils imitate a model and give them plenty of pattern drill to establish habits of behaviour. Reinforce them gor correct responses and elimitate wrong responses by a lack of reinforcement. Let them learn inductively, inferring the rules for themselves after much practice rather than receiving the rules for explanations at the begining. If, on the other hand, language acquisition is a matter of learning a code, then the language teacher must ensure that the pupils internalise the rules yhat will enable them to produce sentences. Explanations of the sentences structures and explicit knowledge of the rules must then play a larger rule in language teaching. Para guru bahasa kedua perlu mengambil dari kedua teori pemerolehan bahasa karena mereka telah melahirkan aliran pemikiran pengajaran bahasa. Jika akuisisi bahasa adalah masalah pembentukan kebiasaan, maka guru bahasa harus berkonsentrasi pada kinerja. Biarkan siswa meniru model dan memberi mereka banyak bor pola untuk membangun kebiasaan perilaku. Memperkuat mereka tanggapan gor benar dan elimitate tanggapan yang salah oleh kurangnya penguatan. Biarkan mereka belajar induktif, menyimpulkan aturan untuk diri mereka sendiri setelah banyak latihan daripada menerima aturan untuk penjelasan di awal. Jika, di sisi lain, penguasaan bahasa adalah masalah belajar kode, maka guru bahasa harus memastikan bahwa siswa menginternalisasi yhat aturan akan memungkinkan mereka untuk menghasilkan kalimat. Penjelasan dari struktur kalimat dan pengetahuan eksplisit aturan kemudian harus memainkan aturan yang lebih besar dalam pengajaranbahasa. How is the language teacher to decide between the two theories of language learning? What grammatical theory is most useful to language teachers? To answer these questions, i would just like to refer the reader to the paper by J. B Carroll that i cited in chapter 1. In that paper he says. â€Å"it would be pretentious to try to express an opinion on which of the various grammatical theories is most vailed. Different grammatical theories have somewhat different goals in general. I believe that language teacher should evaluate grammatical theories in terms of the degree to which they comform to the linguistic habits that actually enable a language user to speak and understand the language†. Bagaimana guru bahasa untuk memutuskan antara dua teori pembelajaran bahasa? Apa teori tata bahasa yang paling berguna untuk guru bahasa? Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ini, saya hanya ingin merujuk pembaca untuk kertas oleh JB Carroll yang saya dikutip dalam bab 1. Dalam kertas yang katanya. Itu akan sok mencoba untuk mengekspresikan pendapat yang dari teori gramatikal berbagai paling vailed. Teori tata bahasa yang berbeda memiliki tujuan yang agak berbeda secara umum. Saya percaya bahwa guru bahasa harus mengevaluasi teori tata bahasa dalam hal sejauh mana mereka comform ke kebiasaan linguistik yang benar-benar memungkinkan pengguna bahasa untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa . As for theories of language learning. Carroll suggest a synthesis of the two. I am inclined to agree with him that neither a pure â€Å"audiolingual habit theory† nor a pure â€Å"cognitive-code learning theory† can be comprehensive and correct. Each of the theories contains elements of truth, and each therefore to some degree wrong or incomplete. We need to extract what is valuable for each theory and put them together. Carroll calls the synthesis â€Å"cognitive habit-formation theory†. Adapun teori belajar bahasa. Carroll menyarankan sintesis dari dua. Saya cenderung setuju dengan dia bahwa baik murni kebiasaan teori audiolingual atau murni kognitif-kode teori belajar bisa tidak lengkap dan benar. Setiap teori mengandung unsur kebenaran, dan masing-masing karena itu untuk beberapa derajat yang salah atau tidak lengkap. Kita perlu untuk mengambil apa yang berharga bagi teori masing-masing dan menempatkan mereka bersama-sama. Carroll menyebut sintesis kognitif kebiasaan-formasi teori. The audiolingual habit theory is correct in that language behaviour is partly a matter habits. The audiolingual method with its emphasis on pattern practice and formations of habits fell out of favour because the theory made the wrong assumtions about that kinds of habits to form and how to form them. Instead of forming habits that have to do. For instance, with substituting words in sentences or with changing one kind of sentences into another. teacher sould form functional habits. The diffferent between the two is that the former takes no account of language ude in actual situations (where is the occasion for substitution for tables in real life outside the classroom?) while the latter does. For example, in teaching commands and requests, it is not enough to present the learners with statements to be changed into commands or requests. The stimulus is the sentence in the case. In forming fumctional habits the stimulus is the situations, the intentions and the listener. In situation A, if you need help you just shout â€Å"help! † ; in situation B, you may say, â€Å"please help me† or â€Å"could you helm me? † ; in situation C, you may say, â€Å"would you mind helping me? † and so on. Teori Kebiasaan audiolingual benar dalam perilaku bahasa adalah kebiasaan sebagian materi. Metode audiolingual dengan penekanan pada praktek pola dan formasi dari kebiasaan jatuh dari nikmat karena teori membuat assumtions salah tentang hal itu jenis kebiasaan untuk membentuk dan bagaimana membentuk mereka. Alih-alih membentuk kebiasaan yang harus dilakukan. Misalnya, dengan mengganti kata-kata dalam kalimat atau dengan mengubah satu jenis kalimat menjadi lain. Guru arwah membentuk kebiasaan fungsional. The diffferent antara keduanya adalah bahwa mantan tidak memperhitungkan bahasa ude dalam situasi yang sebenarnya (di mana merupakan kesempatan untuk substitusi untuk tabel dalam kehidupan nyata di luar kelas?) Sedangkan yang kedua tidak. Sebagai contoh, dalam mengajar perintah dan permintaan, itu tidak cukup untuk menyajikan peserta didik dengan pernyataan yang akan diubah menjadi perintah atau permintaan. Stimulus adalah kalimat dalam kasus ini. Dalam membentuk kebiasaan fumctional stimulus adalah situasi, maksud dan pendengar. Dalam situasi A, jika Anda memerlukan bantuan Anda hanya berteriak membantu! , Dalam situasi B, Anda mungkin berkata, tolong bantu saya atau bisa Anda helm saya? , Dalam situasi C, Anda mungkin berkata, bisakah kau membantu saya dan sebagainya?. Carroll also points out that the audingual habit theory wrongly assumed that practice and repetion were crucial factors in the formation of habits. Although practice and repetition have certain roles to play, they are not crucial in learning. Succesive repetition of the same response is, in fact, generally the wrong way to â€Å"stamp in† a habit; there are few kinds of learning where this is effective. Evocation of the response on a number of aperiodic, widely-spaced occasions, with interpolation of different material in the intervals, is a much more effective method has been insufficiently employed in pattern drills. Carroll juga menunjukkan bahwa teori kebiasaan audingual salah diasumsikan bahwa praktek dan pengulangan adalah faktor penting dalam pembentukan kebiasaan. Meskipun praktek dan pengulangan memiliki peran tertentu untuk bermain, mereka tidak penting dalam belajar. Pengulangan berturut dari respon yang sama, pada kenyataannya, umumnya cara yang salah untuk cap di kebiasaan, ada beberapa jenis belajar di mana ini efektif. Kebangkitan dari respon pada sejumlah aperiodik, luas-spasi kesempatan, dengan interpolasi dari bahan yang berbeda dalam interval, adalah metode yang jauh lebih efektif telah kurang digunakan dalam latihan pola. The element of truth in the cognitive-codelearning theory is that a knowledge of the facts and formal rules of the language can really be of help in guiding the learner to form the right language habits. However, knowledge of the rule alone is of on avail unless the learner is given opportunities to form the habits in the way suggested above. Forthermore, the facts of the language should be presented in a form easy to understand, and appropriate to the learner’s age and ability. Abstract rule should be illustrated with a number of concrete examples. Unsur kebenaran dalam teori kognitif-codelearning adalah bahwa pengetahuan tentang fakta-fakta dan aturan formal bahasa benar-benar dapat membantu dalam membimbing peserta didik untuk membentuk kebiasaan bahasa yang tepat. Namun, pengetahuan tentang aturan saja dari pada berhasil kecuali pelajar diberikan kesempatan untuk membentuk kebiasaan dalam cara yang disarankan di atas. Forthermore, fakta bahasa harus disajikan dalam bentuk yang mudah dimengerti, dan sesuai dengan usia peserta didik dan kemampuan. Aturan abstrak harus diilustrasikan dengan sejumlah contoh konkret. C. FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA PERTAMA DAN KEDUA A question often discussed with regard to second language learning is whether it is the same as first language acquisition. The answer depends on the stage at which the second language is learned. If it is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. First of all, the child is exposed to the first language all his waking hours while he probably hears the second language only during the class hour. Secondly, there is a big difference in motivation. A child learning his first language is strongly motivated because his needs and wishes are satisfied by the use of language and his control of his environment and himself increases with his increasing mastery of his mother tongue. Not only this, but emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. Thirdly, as the child learns the first language he is also learning the concepts, while in learning the second language he seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. Finally, the habits established in first language learning tend to inhabit and interfere with his learning of the second language. It is also claimed that there is a critical period for language acquisition which extends up to puberty. But according to Carroll: â€Å"the evidence for a ‘critical period’ and decline in language acquisition ability during the middle school years is not strong, however, and even if there is some decline. I am not persuaded that one must appeal to biology to explain it. † (p. 109) Krashen has since confirmed Carroll’s view. Suatu pertanyaan yang sering dibahas terkait dengan pembelajaran bahasa kedua adalah apakah pembelajarannya sama dengan akuisisi bahasa pertama. Jawabannya tergantung pada tahap di mana bahasa kedua dipelajari. Jika dipelajari pada usia dini sebelum bahasa pertama benar-benar terkuasai, atau hampir bersamaan dengan bahasa pertama, maka pembelajaran bahasa kedua sejajar dengan pembelajar bahasa pertama. Jika dipelajari pada tahap berikutnya dalam bentuk sekolah formal, ada beberapa perbedaan yang diamati. Pertama-tama, anak terkena bahasa pertama selama dia terjaga sementara dia mungkin mendengar bahasa kedua hanya selama jam sekolah. Kedua, ada perbedaan besar dalam motivasi. Seorang anak belajar bahasa pertamanya sangat termotivasi karena kebutuhan dan keinginannya terpuaskan dengan manfaat bahasa dan kendali lingkungannya dan dirinya sendiri meningkat dengan meningkatnya penguasaan â€Å"bahasa ibunya†. Tidak hanya itu, tapi hubungan emosional dan sosial terciptaka oleh penggunaanya terhadap bahasa pertama. Bahasa kedua jarang memenuhi fungsi tersebut bila dipelajari sebagai subjek dalam kurikulum. Ketiga, ketika anak belajar bahasa pertama dia juga belajar konsep, sedangkan dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua jarang ia harus membentuk konsep-konsep baru kecuali konsep-konsep itu asing bagi budayanya sendiri. Akhirnya, kebiasaan-kebiasaan pada pembelajaran bahasa pertama cenderung menghuni dan mengganggu pembelajaran bahasa kedua. Hal ini juga menyatakan bahwa ada periode kritis bagi penguasaan bahasa yang meluas sampai masa puber. Tetapi menurut Carroll: bukti untuk periode kritis dan penurunan kemampuan akuisisi bahasa selama pertengahan masa sekolah tidak kuat, bagaimanapun, dan bahkan jika ada beberapa penurunan. Saya tidak yakin bahwa seseorang harus menarik biologi untuk menjelaskannya (hal. 109). Krashen sejak mengkonfirmasi pandangan Carroll. There is one respect in which learning a first language is similar to learning a second language: it is in the process itself. Just as the young child makes generalisations and says â€Å"foots† or â€Å"goed†, so the Malay learner of English as a second language may over-generalise and say â€Å"foot of the sky† when he means the horizon. In second language learning there is also imitation and modelling, just as there is in first language learning. Ada suatu kecocokan dimana pembelajaran bahasa pertama mirip dengan belajar bahasa kedua: yaitu dalam proses itu sendiri. Sama seperti anak muda yang membuat generalisasi dan mengatakan foots atau goed, begitu pula pelajar Melayu yang belajar Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua mungkin over-generalisasi dan mengatakan foots of the sky ketika ia bermaksud mengatakan â€Å"the horizon†. Dalam pembelajaran bahasa kedua ada juga imitasi dan modeling, seperti yang ada dalam pembelajaran bahasa pertama. D. MOTIVATION IN L2 LEARNING MOTIVASI DALAM PEMBELAJARAN L2 It was mentioned above that there was a difference in motivation between first and second language learning. It is the lack of motivation that produces little or no difference in student performance in response to improved teaching methods or materials. This problem of motivation in second language learning has been studied and two kinds of motivation have been distinguished. One is called instrumental motivation: this is when the student learns the second language for instrumental purposes. For example, it may be a compulsory school subject or it may be required for post –graduate work, for his career or for travel abroad. There is no desire on his part to go beyond the language as a tool to fulfil rather limited purposes. The other kind of motivation is called integrative. In this case, the student learns the second language with the desire to identify himself with the native speakers and to enrich his life by contact with another culture. It was found that students with integrative motivation have greater success at learning the second language than those with merely instrumental motivation. Telah disebutkan di atas bahwa ada suatu perbedaan dalam motivasi antara belajar bahasa pertama dan kedua. Ini adalah kekurangan dari motivasi bahwa motivasi menghasilkan sedikit atau tidak adanya perbedaan terhadap prestasi siswa dalam menanggapi metode pengajaran atau materi. Masalah motivasi dalam belajar bahasa kedua ini telah dipelajari dan dua jenis motivasi telah dibedakan. Satu disebut motivasi instrumental: yaitu ketika siswa belajar bahasa kedua untuk tujuan instrumental. Sebagai contoh, mungkin suatu subjek sekolah yang wajib atau mungkin diperlukan untuk tugas pasca sarjana, untuk karirnya atau untuk perjalanan ke luar negeri. Tidak adan keinginan pada bagiannya yang melampaui bahasa sebagai alat untuk memenuhi tujuan yang terbatas. Jenis lain dari motivasi disebut integratif. Dalam hal ini, siswa belajar bahasa kedua dengan keinginan untuk mengidentifikasi dirinya dengan penutur asli dan memperkaya hidupnya dengan kontak dengan budaya lain. Ditemukan bahwa siswa dengan motivasi integratif memiliki keberhasilan yang lebih besar dalam mempelajari bahasa kedua dibandingkan dengan motivasi instrumental. E. LANGUAGE INTERFERENCE GANGGUAN BAHASA Another aspect of psycholinguistics that is directly relevant to second language teacher has been touched upon in discussing contrastive analysis. That is, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. The theory is that in learning L1 certain habits of perceiving and performing have to be established and the old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on. We noted in the last chapter that though such interference does occur, not all errors in L2 learning can be accounted for by interference from L1. L2 learning like L1 acquisition appears to proceed by stages when new bits of the language are imperfectly learned, giving rise to what has been called interlanguage. Aspek lain dari psikolinguistik yang secara langsung relevan dengan guru bahasa kedua telah disinggung dalam pembahasan analisis kontrastif. yaitu, the study of interference from L1 in learning L2. Teorinya adalah bahwa dalam belajar L1 kebiasaan dalam mengamati dan performing harus dibentuk dan kebiasaan lama cenderung selingan dan mengganggu pembelajaran, sehingga siswa berbicara L2 dengan intonasi L1-nya atau urutan kata L1-nya , dan seterusnya. Kami mencatat dalam bab terakhir bahwa meskipun gangguan tersebut tidak terjadi, tidak semua kesalahan dalam pembelajaran L2 dapat dipertanggungjawabkan oleh gangguan dari L1. pembelajaran L2 seperti akuisisi L1 muncul untuk melanjutkan secara bertahap ketika bit baru dari bahasa tidak dipelajari secara sempurna, sehingga menimbulkan apa yang disebut interlanguage. CHAPTER III CONGCLUTION From chapter 2 in this report , we make some point : 1. Psycholinguistics is a field study that combines psychology and linguistics. The term itself was coined in 1951. Though the study had been going on eveb in the nineteenth century in the form of the study of language development. It includes a great variety of topics that are of interest to language teachers. 2. theory of language acquisition is based on the view that language is behaviour that results from habits and habits are formed by practice and repetion. 3. If the second is learned at an early age before the first language is thoroughly mastered, or almost simultaneously with the first language then second language learning parallels first language learning. If it is learned at a later stage in the formal school setting, there are several observable differences. different motivation. Emotional and social ties are created by his use of the first language. Meanwhile, The second language seldom fulfils such function when it is learned as a subject in the curriculum. When we Learn first language, we also learn the concepts, while in learning the second language we seldom has to form new concepts except where these are foreign to his own culture. 4. The old habits tend to interlude and interfere with the learning, so that the student may speak L2 with the intonation of his L1 or the word order of his L1, and so on.